FROM WIKIPEDIA - INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British. Whereas absolutism stayed the normal form of power execution through most parts of Europe, institutions ensured property rights and political safety to the people in the UK after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world.A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.

The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. At approximately the same time the Industrial Revolution was occurring, Britain was undergoing an agricultural revolution, which also helped to improve living standards and provided surplus labour available for industry.

Mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world. The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.

The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.

REMEMBER:
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.^[109]
The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities,^[123] compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century).^[124] Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.^[125]

permission and offers

PERMISSION AND OFFERS

    When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word "please."
   
Asking for Permission:

        Can I go out, please?
        May I open the window, please?
        Please, can I have a look at your photo album?
        Please, may I taste that hot spicy couscous dish?
        Do you mind if I smoke?
        Would you mind if I asked you something?
        Is it okay if I sit here?
        Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile Phone?

    Giving Permission:

        Yes, please do.
        Sure, go ahead.
        Sure.
        No problem.
        Please feel free.

    Refusing to give permission:

        No, please don’t.
        I’m sorry, but that’s not possible.
        I'm afraid you can't.

How to make offers in English

    It is common that English speakers make offers in conversations in order to be polite and helpful. When they do so they use these expressions:

        Can I… ?
        Shall I… ?
        Would you like … ?
        How about ...?

    English learner must be able to make offers as well as accept or reject them. The following are useful expressions to do so.

Making offers:

    Can I help you?
    Shall get you some juice?
    Would you like a glass of water ?
    How about some pizza?

    Examples:

        "Can I help you?"
        "Shall I open the window for you?"
        "Would you like another cup of coffee?"
        "Would you like me to clean the board?"
        "How about a juice? "

    Remember:

        Shall, can and will are followed by the verb without to.
             Example:
             "Can I help you?"
             "Shall I bring you the mobile phone?
        Shall is more formal than can.
        Would you like… is followed either by a noun, or by the verb with to.
        Example:
        "Would you like some tea ?"
        "Would you like to drink some coffee?



    Examples:

        "Can I help you?"
        "No thanks, I'm just having a look." (With a shop assistant.)

        "Can I help you?"
        "Do you know where the post office is."

        "Shall I help you with your maths problem?"
        "Yes, please. That would be very nice of you."

        "Would you like a cup of tea?"
        "No thanks." Or, "No thank you."

        "Would you like another piece of cake?"
        "Yes please, that would be nice ."
        "Yes please, I'd love one."

        "Would you like me to do the the ironing for you?"
        "If you wouldn't mind."
        "If you could."

        "I'll do the washing, if you like."
        "It's OK, I can do it."
        "Don't worry, I'll do it."
        "Thank you, that would be great."

WIKIPEDIA HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION

A COMPLETE HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION FROM WIKIPEDIA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_construction

MODAL VERBS

Modali CAN MAY
Potere         Funzione comunicativa

can               capacità/abilità
                    permesso

could           capacità/abilità nel passato
                    permesso più formale

may             probabilità
                   augurio
                   permesso più formale

might          probabilità più remota
                   permesso molto formale

Modali SHALL MUST
Dovere                  Funzione comunicativa

shall (I - we)         proposte/suggerimenti
                             offrirsi
                             chiedere parere formale

should, ought to     consigli/suggerimenti
                               rimproveri
                               supposizioni

must, mustn't            obbligo
                                 necessità
                                proibizione
                                probabilità logica
                               consiglio con insistenza

Modale WILL
Volere             Funzione comunicativa
will             previsione
                   intenzione
                   inviti/richieste/buona volontà
                   offrire

would             inviti/richieste/buona volontà più formale
                       disponibilità (nel commercio)
                       abitudine nel passato


Modale NEED / NEEDN'T
Essere necessario     Funzione comunicativa
need     necessità / mancanza di necessità


I modali:
- non prendono la -s alla 3° persona singolare del presente
- non richiedono gli ausiliari DO/DOES/DID, comportandosi come TO BE
- l'infinito che segue non vuole il TO, eccetto OUGHT TO
- formano le risposte brevi come il verbo TO BE

future

1. When we know about the future we normally use the present tense.

    We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:

We have a lesson next Monday.
The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.
The holidays start next week.
It is my birthday tomorrow.

    We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:

I’m playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We’re having a party at Christmas.

2. We use will to talk about the future:

    When we make predictions:

It will be a nice day tomorrow.
I think Brazil will win the World Cup.
I’m sure you will enjoy the film.

    To mean want to or be willing to:

I hope you will come to my party.
George says he will help us.

    To make offers and promises:

I'll see you tomorrow.
We'll send you an email.

    To talk about offers and promises:

Tim will be at the meeting.
Mary will help with the cooking.

3. We use (be) going to:

    To talk about plans and intentions:

I’m going to drive to work today.
They are going to move to Manchester.

    When we can see that something is likely to happen:

Be careful! You are going to fall.
Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain.


4. We often use verbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to talk about the future:

What are you going to do next year? I’d like to go to University.
We plan to go to France for our holidays.
George wants to buy a new car.

5. We use modals may, might, and could when we are not sure about the future:

I might stay at home tonight, or I might go to the cinema.
We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes.

6. We can use should if we think something is likely to happen:

We should be home in time for tea.
The game should be over by eight o’clock.

7. Clauses with time words:

In clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense form to talk about the future:

I’ll come home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have dinner.

8. Clauses with if:

In clauses with if we often use a present tense form to talk about the future:

We won’t be able to go out if it rains.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.

WARNING: We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

I’ll come home when I will finish work.
We won’t be able to go out if it will rain.

But we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.

9. We can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or going to for emphasis when we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions:

They’ll be coming to see us next week.
I will be driving to work tomorrow.

SOME OF THE TOP ARCHITECTURE MASTERPIECES

Because architecture is cool.

Architecture isn’t solely the interest of older generations; instead, it’s a prime interest of millennials, student tourists, young explorers. Here are 10 of the most frequently visited works of architecture topping every young traveler’s list.

The Eiffel Tower, Paris, France

The Eiffel Tower is one of the world’s most iconic works of architecture, making it a top attraction for young, wide-eyed travelers. Built for the 1889 World’s Fair, the Eiffel Tower is a thousand-foot-high masterpiece of latticed wrought iron, nuts and bolts. All 7,300 tons of it’s intricately designed frame has been hand- painted (and repainted) to remain looking shiny and new for generations of travelers to climb it’s limbs. The Tower is open to the public 365 days a year and has 3 levels to explore. The transparent first floor is accessible by stairs and has resting areas, restaurants and an immersion show; the second floor has a champagne bar to toast to past, present and future adventures; and the jaw-dropping third floor has a picture-perfect, panoramic view of the city of love. It should come as no surprise that the top of the Eiffel Tower is the venue-of-choice for countless proposals and true loves first (french) kiss.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

Built from 1173 until 1399 in the small Italian city of Pisa, the Leaning Tower of Pisa is a stunning, yet confusing work of architecture. Everyday young tourists hop on the train from Florence to Pisa to find out one thing and one thing only... why is the leaning tower... leaning? The fact is, it wasn’t designed to be a leaning tower. During the bell tower’s creation, it began to angle to the side a little, and then a little more, and then a lot. To prevent the tower from leaning to the point of its collapse, architects brainstormed ways to stop its frame from slanting. They decided upon curving the frame of the tower—and it worked! Today, tourists can still climb the 251 steps to the top of the pure-white tower and peer down over the city.

The Taj Mahal, Agra, India

The Taj Mahal is an Indo-Islamic architectural masterpiece that remains the ultimate monument of love. The Taj Mahal was built by the fifth Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan, to commemorate the life of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal, died after giving birth to her thirteenth child. Immediately after her death, Shah Jahan began planning the design for an appropriate mausoleum for his wife to be buried in. It took 22 years for the structure to be complete, but in 1648 AD, the marvelous Taj Mahal was finished and Mumtaz Mahal’s body was relocated to the royal tomb inside.

The Taj Mahal is one of the biggest wonders of the world, as it is a colossal, symmetrical, white marble mosque dating back to the 17th century. Surrounding the Taj are magnificent gardens and leading up to the structure are two large walkways and a long, reflection pool. Though it is still a mystery who designed the structure, it is known that over 20,000 workers built it. Its pure beauty and historical reputation for true love are what make the Taj Mahal a young traveler’s dream destination.

La Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain

Designed by Spanish architect Antoni Gaudi, La Sagrada Familia’s remarkable frame is as majestic as it is massive. This architectural masterpiece is deservingly the most visited monument in Spain, displaying four sides of complex stonework and hand-painted brilliance. The cathedral has two sides that are all-but-complete—the Nativity Façade and the Passion Façade—which visitors from all over the world come to admire. The Nativity Façade, built by Antoni Gaudi from 1882 up until his death in 1926, is made of four enormous bell towers and the portico. The portico is composed of three sections, each representing the Christian virtues faith, hope and charity. The Passion Façade was recently constructed and is equally incredible, representing the passion and death of Jesus Christ.

Though the exterior of the cathedral is what most young travelers come to see, the interior is even more breath taking. The stained glass windows cast shards of florescent blue, green, orange and red light onto the alter and the ceiling is composed of tree-shaped stone, making the acoustics come alive.

The Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France

Only 10 miles southwest of Paris is the Palace of Versailles. This UNESCO World Heritage site was initially built in 1631 as a chateau hunting lodge for King Louis XIII. When King Louis XIV took over the kingdom in 1682, he transformed the small chateau into the enormous royal palace that it is today. The Palace encompasses north and south wings, an ornately decorated grand hall (The Hall of Mirrors), the King’s grand apartments, gold-plated dining halls and rooms filled with extraordinary French art; the palace truly embodies everything rich, precious and exquisite. Placed directly behind the palace is a maze of perfectly-kept gardens, with majestic sculptures, fountains and ponds. The allure of the palace’s rich history and opulent features entices young travelers to delve into old French royalty and walk the palace halls like Marie-Antoinette.

The Alhambra, Granada, Spain

The Alhambra is Granada’s most famous work of Islamic architecture and most visited tourist attraction. The medieval palace was born in 889AD when a small military fortress was built atop hill al-Sabika on Roman ruins. It wasn’t until the 13th century, when moorish emir Mohammed ben Al-hamar arrived, that the fortress was reconstructed into the royal palace that remains today. The Alhambra is complied of 5 major sections, each of which are unique in form and beauty.

The Nasrid Palace is the hardest section to get tickets for and is made up of three independent areas: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions. To get tickets for the Nasrid Palace, tourists must wait in line early in the morning or reserve tickets months before their arrival date. The Medina is the second section of the Alhambra and is a citadel with public baths, ovens, workshops and silos. The Medina was home to top government officials, court servants and employees. Alcazaba is the third section and is an old military area that contains a large watchtower. The views from the watchtower are incredible—as it’s possible to see the entire city of Granada, as well as the Sierra Nevada mountains. Generalife is the fourth section of the Alhambra and is a gorgeous villa surrounded by colorful gardens and orchards. The last section of the Alhambra is the Palace of Charles V, which is a small, white palace that is free and open to the public year round.

The Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California

Straddling 1.7 miles of the misty Golden Gate straight, the Golden Gate Bridge is one of the seven wonders of the modern world. The record-breaking suspension bridge was designed by Joseph Baerman Strauss to brave the elements—as it was built during extreme fog, blistery winds and rough tides. Luckily, it only took four years to complete the bridge and connect San Francisco to Marion County.

The Golden Gate Bridge was the first of its kind, allowing 5 lanes of traffic, as well as pedestrians and bicyclists, to pass beneath its strong, wide suspensions. Nevertheless, it’s not the immensity of the bridge that makes it so iconic; instead, it’s the beauty of its hand-painted, orange frame against California’s rocky waters and blue skies. Tourists line up on either side of the bridge to get a once-in-a-lifetime snapshot of this excellent work of architecture.

The Palace of Westminster

Perched on the bank of the Thames, the Palace of Westminster symbolizes Great Britain’s past, present and future. The story of the palace begins with the Old Palace—a medieval fortress built by William II in 1097. The Old Palace was home to decades of royal Kings, Queens, Princes and Princesses, up until the year 1500 when it became the meeting place for Great Britain’s Courts of Law and later the British Parliament.

Though the Old Palace’s medieval presence is still alive in today’s modern structure, the Old Palace is not the palace that exists at present. Destroyed by a fire in 1837, the Old Palace was replaced by the New Palace—a massive structure encompassing 1,100 rooms, 2 courtyards and the magnificent Big Ben clock tower. Architect Sir Charles Barry was the creator of the New Palace, and though he died before the palace was complete, he’d be pleased to know that his architecture is London’s most famous icon and that Big Ben has been stealing the hearts of young travelers since 1859.

Burj Al Arab, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

The Burj Al Arab is a stunning hotel, a symbol of modern Dubai and an architectural feat. Built from 1994 to 1999, the Burj Al Arab is the third tallest hotel in the world and possibly the most luxurious hotel ever. The gleaming structure stands on an artificial island off of the coast of Dubai, and looks like a giant glass sail. The building was designed by consultancy group, Atkins, and was led by head designer Tom Wright. It took over 2,000 construction workers and five years to create the building, but it was definitely worth the effort.

Today, the Burj Al Arab hotel is known as the only 7-star hotel in the world—with incredibly lavish rooms, restaurants and accommodations. Though young travelers don’t typically stay in the hotel (costs are up to 30,000$ a night), people come from across the world to get a glance of the sail-shaped masterpiece.

Sydney Opera House, Sydney, Australia

The Sydney Opera House is Australia’s most distinctive work of architecture and most visited landmark. The planning of the Opera House began in the 1940s, when Eugene Goossens, the Director of the NSW State Conservatorium of Music, decided that Australia needed a larger venue for theater. Years later, in 1955, Goossens held an international design competition with more than 230 contestants from 32 different countries. Danish architect, Jorn Utzon, came out on top. With no time to waste, construction began in 1958 and was completed in 3 stages. The first stage was the upper podium; the second, the two outer shells; and the third, the interior design and construction. Fifteen years and 102 Million dollars later, the expressionist building encompassed a concert hall, two theatres, a studio, an outdoor forecourt, a recording studio, a playhouse, a party venue, bars, restaurants, retail stores and cafes.

The Sydney Opera House is a one-of-a-kind, multi-venue performing arts center that provides tourists with endless activity. It’s no wonder that 1.2 million travelers visit the Opera House every year.

who - whom - whose EXPLANATION and EXERCISES

WHO - WHOM - WHOSE

Subjects, Objects and Possessive Forms

To understand how to use "who," "whom," and "whose," you first have to understand the difference between subjects, objects, and possessive forms.

Subjects do an action:

    He loves movies.
    She goes to school.
    We enjoy Chinese food.

Objects receive an action:

    The teachers like him.
    Thomas knows her.
    The actor smiled at us.

Possessive forms tell us the person something/someone belongs to:

    His bike is broken.
    I like her new book.
    The teacher graded our homework.
    Her sister is gone.

"Who" is a Subject Pronoun

"Who" is a subject pronoun like "he," "she" and "we" in the examples above. We use "who" to ask which person does an action or which person is a certain way.

Examples:

    Who made the birthday cake?
    Who is in the kitchen?
    Who is going to do the dishes?

"Whom" is an Object Pronoun

"Whom" is an object pronoun like "him," "her" and "us." We use "whom" to ask which person receives an action.

Examples:

    Whom are you going to invite?
    Whom did he blame for the accident?
    Whom did he hire to do the job?

"Whose" is a Possessive Pronoun

"Whose" is a possessive pronoun like "his," "her" and "our." We use "whose" to find out which person something/someone belongs to.

Examples:

    Whose camera is this?
    Whose dog is barking outside?
    Whose cell phone keeps ringing?


"Who," "Whom" and "Whose" in Indirect Questions

The sentence below contains an example of an indirect question:

    I don't know whom he invited.

Such sentences usually start with a phrase such as: "I am not sure" or "He doesn't know" or "We don't care." Just ignore the first part of the sentence and look at the indirect question when deciding whether to use "who," "whom" or "whose." Ask yourself if the indirect question requires a subject, object, or possessive form.

Examples:

    He doesn't know who the boss of the company is. subject of the indirect question
    I don't care whom you invite. object of the indirect question
    She isn't sure whose car that is. "Whose" shows possession of car.

"Who," "Whom" and "Whose" in Adjective Clauses

The sentence below contains an example of an adjective clause:

    I know the man who won the contest.

Adjective clauses are used to describe a noun in the main sentence. In the example above, the adjective clause tells us about "the man." Just ignore the main sentence and look at the adjective clause when deciding whether to use "who," "whom" or "whose." Ask yourself if the adjective clause requires a subject, object, or possessive form.

Examples:

    We knew the actress who starred in the movie. subject of adjective clause
    They hired the man whom we interviewed last week. object of adjective clause
    She knew the family whose house we bought. "Whose" shows possession of house.

"Whom" Less Common

The form "whom" is becoming less and less common in English. Many native English speakers think "whom" sounds outdated or strange. This trend is particularly common in the United States. Especially when combined with prepositions, most people prefer to use "who" as the object pronoun. To most native English speakers, the examples below sound quite natural.

Examples:

    Who did you come to the party with?
    I don't know who he gave the book to.
    That is the woman who I was talking to.
    Who did you get that from?
    Do you have any idea who he sold his car to?
    That is the person who I got the information from.

EXERCISES

WHO - WHOM - WHOSE

1. ______________  wrote this book?

2. ______________  are you going to recommend?

3. ______________  dictionary is on the table?

4. It doesn't look like this is the right address. ______________  did you ask for directions?

5. We have two extra tickets for the concert. ______________  wants to go with us?

6. It wasn't me! I have no idea ______________  left the oven on.

7. ______________  car is parked in the handicapped parking space? If someone doesn't move it, it's going to be towed.

8. The police have called in an expert to identify ______________  handwriting is actually on the ransom letter.

9. Do you remember ______________  received the Academy Award for best actress that year? Was it Nicole Kidman?

10. Melanie couldn't remember the name of the student ______________  science project received the $100,000 prize.

11. I know exactly ______________  I'm going to support in the upcoming election.

12. That's the professor ______________  spent 10 years living with the Pygmies in Central Africa.

13. She's the actress ______________  he so vividly describes in his scandalous new book.

14. Can you please tell me the names of the people ______________  helped organize the AIDS charity event?

15. The national park is being renamed in honor of Dian Fossey, ______________  scientific research and environmental efforts helped save the last remaining mountain gorillas.